From FoundmyFitness - May 2017
Only about 10% apply to VitaminDWiki
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Definition: 5-HT2A Receptor
This receptor was first noted for its importance as a target of serotonergic psychedelic drugs such as LSD. Later it came back to prominence because it was also found to involved with certain antipsychotic drugs. Down regulation of post-synaptic 5-HT2A receptor is an adaptive process provoked by chronic administration of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and classical antipsychotics. Post-synaptic 5-HT2A over-density is involved in the pathogenesis of depression.
Definition: A-beta (amyloid-beta 42)
A toxic 42 amino acid peptide that aggregates and forms plaques in the brain with age and is associated with Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive mental deterioration that can occur in middle or old age. Alzheimer's is the most common cause of premature senility.
Definition: Accumulation of senescent cells Theory of Aging
As cells become nonfunctional, they produce inflammatory cytokines and compromise tissue health.
Definition: Acid reflux disease (GERD)
A chronic condition of mucosal damage caused by stomach acid coming up from the stomach into the esophagus. GERD is usually caused by changes in the junction between the stomach and the esophagus, including abnormal relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally holds the top of the stomach closed, impaired expulsion of gastric reflux from the esophagus, ora hiatal hernia. These changes may be permanent or temporary.
Definition: Acrolein
Acrolein is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde created by the burning of glycerol in animal fat. It is a colourless liquid with a piercing, disagreeable, acrid smell. Acrolein is toxic and is a strong irritant for the skin, eyes, and nasal passages
Definition: Adenosine
A purine nucleoside composed of a molecule of adenine attached to a ribose sugar molecule. Plays a role in regulating blood flow to various organs as a vasodilator, and, in its role as a neuromodulator, adenosine is believed to promote sleep and suppress arousal. Adenosine is also involved in energy transfer as ATP and ADP, and signal transduction when in the form of cAMP.
Definition: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is used in cells as a coenzyme often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. It is one of the end products of photophosphorylation, cellular respiration, and fermentation and used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes, including biosynthetic reactions, motility, and cell division.
Definition: Aflatoxins
Poisonous and cancer-causing chemicals that are produced by certain molds which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains. They are regularly found in improperly stored staple commodities such as cassava, chili peppers, corn, cotton seed, millet, peanuts, rice, sesame seeds, sorghum, sunflower seeds, tree nuts, wheat, and a variety of spices.
Definition: Agar
A jelly-like substance, equivalent to vegan gelatin, obtained from the cell walls of algae. It has diverse uses ranging from plant biology and microbiology research to even various culinary uses. Agar itself is indigestible for many organisms so that microbial growth does not affect the gel used and it remains stable.
Definition: Alanine
A nonessential amino acid that is able to be manufactured by the human body and not dietarily required. It is nevertheless found in a wide variety of foods, and is particularly concentrated in meats.
Definition: Allostasis
The process by which the body responds to stressors in order to regain homeostasis. This can be carried out by means of alteration in HPA axis hormones, the autonomic nervous system, cytokines, or a number of other systems.
Definition: Alpha-synuclein
A protein abundant in the human brain and found mainly at the tips of nerve cells at the presynaptic terminals. Aggregation of alpha-synuclein occurs in Parkinson's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system that involves loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and leads to impaired motor control. In 2013, PD was present in 53 million people and resulted in about 103,000 deaths globally.
Definition: Alzheimer's Disease
Progressive mental deterioration that can occur in middle or old age, due to generalized degeneration of the brain associated with the pathophysiological characteristic of buildup oftau tangles and amyloid-beta plaques in the brain. Alzheimer's is the most common cause of premature senility.
Definition: AMP Kinase
An enzyme that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis. The net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation, ketogenesis, stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake, inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis and lipogenesis, and modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta-cells.
Definition: Amphiregulin
It is an autocrine growth factor as well as a mitogen for astrocytes, Schwann cells, fibroblasts. It is related to epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha). This protein interacts with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) to promote the growth of normal epithelial cells.
Definition: Amygdalae
Two almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.
Definition: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
A progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord.
Definition: Angiogenesis
The physiological process through which new blood vessels form from preexisting vessels. This is a normal and vital process in growth and development, wound healing, and in the formation of granulation tissue. However, it is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a benign state to a malignant one.
Definition: Antagonistic pleiotropy
When one gene controls for more than one trait where at least one of these traits is beneficial to the organism's fitness and at least one is detrimental to the organism's fitness.
Definition: Antibiosis
An antagonistic association between two organisms (especially microorganisms), in which one is adversely affected.
Definition: Antioxidant
A molecule that inhibits reactive oxygen species that damage DNA, proteins,and lipids in cells. This type of damage plays a role in the aging process, cancer, and neurodegeneration.
Definition: Apolipoprotein B (ApoB)
The primary apolipoprotein of chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, and LDL particle, which is responsible for carrying fat molecules (lipids), including cholesterol, around the body to all cells within all tissues. High levels of ApoB, especially associated with higher LDL particle concentrations, are the primary driver of plaques that cause vascular disease.
Definition: Apolipoprotein E (ApoE)
A lipoprotein produced in the liver and the brain. In the brain, ApoE transports fatty acids and cholesterol to neurons. In the bloodstream, it binds and transports cholesterol, bringing it to tissues, and recycling it back to the liver. Approximately 25% of the population have at least one copy of the ApoE4 variant, which is associated with higher circulating levels of LDL cholesterol and a 2 to 3 fold increased risk for Alzheimer's
disease.
Definition: Apoptosis
Cellular program that causes a cell to kill itself after damage has occurred. This is one of the ways that multicellular organisms protect themselves from cancer.
Definition: art (p14ARF)
Tumor suppressor gene, the focus of which is found to be deleted or silenced in many kinds of tumors. For example, of the 100 primary breast carcinomas, approximately 41% have p14ARF defects.
Definition: Assay
An investigative (analytic) procedure in laboratory medicine, pharmacology, environmental biology, and molecular biology for qualitatively assessing or quantitatively measuring the presence or amount or the functional activity of a target entity (the analyte).
Definition: Astrocyte
Star-shaped supporting cells in the brain and spinal cord. They perform many functions, including biochemical support of endothelial cells that form the blood-brain barrier, provides nutrients to neurons, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.
Definition: Atherogenic
The tendency for something to promote the formation of fatty plaques in the arteries.
Definition: Atherosclerosis
A disease of the arteries characterized by the deposition of plaques of fatty material on their inner walls.
Definition: Augmentin
Also known as Amoxicillin/clavulanic. An antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. It is a combination antibiotic consisting of amoxicillin trihydrate, a beta-lactam antibiotic, and potassium clavulanate, a beta-lactamase inhibitor.
Definition: Autoimmune diseases
Arise from an abnormal immune response of the body against the substances and tissues normally present in the body. It has been estimated that autoimmune diseases, of which there are over 80, are among the number one leading causes of death among women in all age groups up to 65 years.
Definition: Autologous transplantation
Involving one person as both donor and recipient.
Definition: Autonomic Nervous System
A division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs, and acts largely unconsciously to regulate bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. It is also the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and the freeze-and-dissociate response.
Definition: Autophagy
An intracellular degradation system that involves the self-destruction of a cell by degrading its cellular components. This process is used to generate energy and is one reason why fasting increases cellular autophagy in order to provide energy for surviving cells. Damaged cells are often cleared away via autophagy and this mechanism is thought to help protect against cancer and even aging by reducing the burden of abnormal cells.
Definition: Ayahuasca
An entheogenic brew made out of Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the Psychotria viridis leaf. The brew is used as a traditional spiritual medicine in ceremonies among the indigenous peoples of Amazonia. People who have consumed ayahuasca report having spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe as well as deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can.
Definition: Bad Trip
A disturbing experience typically associated with use of one or more of various hallucinogens. The manifestations can range from feelings of vague anxiety and alienation to profoundly disturbing states of unrelieved terror, ultimate entrapment, or complete loss of self-identity (ego death).
Definition: Bailer
"1 expect to die at 110, shot by a jealous husband." - Thurgood Marshal
Definition: Benzene
Benzene is a carcinogen in gasoline. Benzene targets liver, kidney, lung, heart and the brain and can cause DNA strand breaks, chromosomal damage, etc.
Definition: Beta-hydroxybutyrate
A ketone body that is synthesized in the liver from acetyl-CoA when fasting or in ketosis.lt can be used to produce energy inside the mitochondria and has also been shown to act as a signaling molecule that alters gene expression by inhibiting class 1 histone deacetylases.
Definition: Bile Acid
Proteins that provide favorable conditions for the correct folding of other proteins. Newly made proteins usually must fold from a linear chain of amino acids into a three-dimensional form. Group II chaperonins, the variety found in eukaryotic cytosol, are also referred to as CCT, which stands for "chaperonin containing TCP-1."
Definition: Bioavailability
The proportion of a drug or other substance that enters the circulation when introduced into the body and so is able to have an active effect.
Definition: Biomarker
A measurable substance in an organism that is indicative of some phenomenon such as disease, infection, or environmental exposure.
Definition: Blood Panel
A laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample obtained either from a needle or finger prick. Blood tests are often used in healthcare to determine disease, mineral content, pharmaceutical drug effectiveness, and organ function. Typical clinical blood panels include a basic metabolic panel or a complete blood count.
Definition: Blood-Brain Barrier
A highly selective permeability barrier made up of brain endothelial cells which are connected by tight junctions and separate the circulating blood from the brain extracellular fluid (BECF) in the central nervous system (CNS). It allows the passage of water, some gases, and lipid-soluble molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective transport of molecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural function, but prevents the entry of lipophilic, potential neurotoxins by way of an active transport mechanism.
Definition: Bow Wave
A bow wave is the wave that forms at the bow or "forward part" of a ship when it moves through the water. As the bow wave spreads out, it defines the outer limits of a ship's wake.
Definition: brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
One of the most active of a family of proteins known as neurotrophins which help to control and stimulate neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons. BDNF is important for long-term memory, is active in the hippocampus, cortex, basal forebrain, and its production has been shown to be robustly increased by exercise.
Definition: Branched-Chain AMino Acids (BCAAs)
An amino acid having aliphatic side-chains with a branch (a central carbon atom bound to three or more carbon atoms). Among the proteinogenic amino acids, there are three BCAAs: leucine, isoleucine and valine.
Definition: BRCA
Five to ten percent of breast cancers in the U.S. are linked to an inherited gene mutation, BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer genes 1 and 2) are the best-known genes linked to breast cancer. People who have a
BRCA1/2 mutation have a greatly increased risk of breast cancer and (for women) ovarian cancer.
Definition: Breatharianism
The belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food. Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained soley by prana, the vital life force in Hinduism.
Definition: Brown adipose tissues (BAT)
One of two types of fat or adipose tissue (the other being white adipose tissue, or white fat) found in mammals. Its primary function is to generate body heat. In contrast to white adipocytes (fat cells), which contain a single lipid droplet, brown adipocytes contain numerous smaller droplets and a much higher number of mitochondria, which make it brown. Brown fat also contains more capillaries than white fat, since it has a greater need for oxygen than most tissues.
Definition: Busk
Play or music or otherwise perform for voluntary donations in the street or in subways.
Definition: C-reactive Protein (CRP)
A ring-shaped protein found in blood plasma, the levels of which rise in response to inflammation. CRP binds to the phosphocholine expressed on the surface of dead or dying cells and some bacteria. This activates the complement system, promoting phagocytosis by macrophages, which clears necrotic and apoptotic cells and bacteria.
Definition: Caenorhabdtitis elegans
A transparent nematode species, about 1mm in length. The first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced. They have a short lifespan, 14-15 days and, thus, are a good model organism for aging research. Strains are cheap to breed and can be frozen. When subsequently thawed, they remain viable, allowing long-term storage.
Definition: Caloric Restriction
Restricting caloric intake by 30% has been shown to extend the lifespan of worms, flies, mice, dogs, and monkeys.
Definition: Candida Albicans (yeast)
A diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Overgrowth of the organism, an otherwise normal gut flora comprising microorganism, is known as candidiasis.
Definition: Carcinogenesis
The process by which cancer is initiated and normal cells are transformed into abnormal cells. In order for a normal cell to transform into a cancer cell, genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation must be altered. DNA damage is a well-known initiator of cancer because it can lead to cancer-causing mutations.
Definition: Carotenoid
Organic pigments that are found mainly in the chloroplasts of plants and are responsible for absorbing light. Plants use carotenoids to create energy and protection from harmful UV rays and animals commonly use carotenoids as a precursor for vitamin A.
Definition: Catabolic
The set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules (such as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins) into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions.
Definition: Cellular Senescence
The condition or process of deterioration that occurs with age. Cells that have acquired enough damage can become senescent which means they are not metabolically active and cannot replicate anymore. Moreover, they can release inflammatory cytokines which can then lead to the damage of neighboring healthy cells.
Definition: Centenarian
A person who is one hundred or more years old.
Definition: Cephalopod
A member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda. The class now contains two, only distantly related, extant subclasses: Coleoidea, which includes octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish; and Nautiloidea, represented by Nautilus and Allonautilus. In the Coleoidea, the molluscan shell has been internalized or is absent, whereas in the Nautiloidea, the external shell remains.
Definition: Chaperonin
Proteins that provide favorable conditions for the correct folding of other proteins. Newly made proteins usually must fold from a linear chain of amino acids into a three-dimensional form. Group II chaperonins, the variant found in eukaryotic cytosol, are also referred to as CCT, which stands for "chaperonin containing TCP-1."
Definition: Chelator
A protein that can bond to free metals. Often the metal atom is used to lower activation energy for reactions and speed up reactions in the body. Common examples of chelators include porphyrin rings in hemoglobin and chlorophyll.
Definition: Chronic Stress
Emotional pressure suffered fora prolonged period over which an individual perceives he or she has no control. It involves an endocrine system response in which occurs a release of corticosteroids.
Definition: Chylomicron
Lipoprotein particles that consist of triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. They transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body. Chylomicrons are one of the four major groups of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, IDL, VLDL, HDL) that enables fats and cholesterol to move within the water-based solution of the
bloodstream.
Definition: Circadian Rhythms
Recurring naturally on a twenty-four-hour cycle, even in the absence of light fluctuations. Every cell in the human body follows a circadian rhythm, which governs when a cell is most metabolically active, when hormones are produced, when repair processes are activated and more.
Definition: CLOCK
A gene encoding a transcription factor (CLOCK) that affects both the persistence and period of circadian rhythms. CLOCK functions as an essential activator of downstream elements in the pathway critical to the generation of circadian rhythms. In humans, polymorphisms in the CLOCK gene have been associated with increased insomnia, weight loss difficulty, and recurrence of major depressive episodes in patients with bipolar disorder.
Definition: Coenzyme
The process by which the body responds to stressors in order to regain homeostasis. This can be carried out by means of alteration in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the autonomic nervous system, cytokines, or a number of other systems.
Definition: Cofactor
A substance whose presence is essential for the activity of an enzyme. Many minerals and vitamins are cofactors for enzymes.
Definition: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
CBT focuses on the development of personal coping strategies that target solving current problems and changing unhelpful patterns in cognitions (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes), behaviors, and emotional regulation.24 It was originally designed to treat depression, and is now used for a number of mental health conditions.
Definition: Cold Shock Proteins
Proteins possessing what is known as a "cold-shock domain", which is a sequence of amino acids found in proteins whose expression is associated with cold, and are thought to help cells survive in lower than optimal temperatures.
Definition: Comatose
In a state of deep unconsciousness fora prolonged or indefinite period, especially as a result of severe injury or illness.
Definition: Commensal bacteria
Bacteria that is beneficial or at least not harmful to the host, in contrast to pathogenic bacteria where the host derives no benefit and is actively harmed from the relationship.
Definition: Complex 1
A series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. In Complex I, two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
Definition: Complex Carbohydrate
Complex carbohydrate foods provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber that are important to the health of an individual. As opposed to simple or refined sugars, which do not have the vitamins, minerals, and fiber found in complex and natural carbohydrates. Simple sugars are often called "empty calories" because they have little to no nutritional value.
Definition: Convergent methodology
As opposed to divergent methodology, convergent generally means the ability to give the "correct" answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity, for instance in most tasks in school and on standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence.
Definition: Cortisol
A steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones, which is produced in humans by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentration. It functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis and to suppress the immune system.
Definition: CpG Island
CpG sites or CG sites are regions of DNA where a cytosine nucleotide occurs next to a guanine nucleotide in the linear sequence of bases along its length. Methylation of CpG sites within the promoters of genes can lead to their silencing, a feature found in a number of human cancers. "CpG" is shorthand for C-phosphate-G.
Definition: Crispr system
a gene-editing technology relies on a prokaryotic enzyme called Cas9 that uses a guide RNA molecule to home in on its target DNA, then edits the DNA to disrupt genes or insert desired sequences. Cas9 makes up part of a prokaryotic immune system, which confers resistance to foreign genetic elements such as plasmids and phages.
Definition: Crohn's Disease
An inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract, which can lead to abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, weight loss and malnutrition.
Definition: Cryptochrome
Cryptochromes are a class of flavoproteins that are sensitive to blue light. Found in plants and animals, they are involved in the circadian rhythm and in the sensing of magnetic fields in a number of species.
Definition: Cultivar
A plant variety that has been produced in cultivation by selective breeding. Cultivars are usually designated in the style Taxus baccata “Variegata.”
Definition: Cytogenetics
The study of inheritance in relation to the structure and function of chromosomes.
Definition: Cytokine
A broad and loose category of small proteins (~5-20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. They are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells. Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumor necrosis factor. Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, and mast cells as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells.
Definition: Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes
A type of white blood cell that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected (particularly with viruses) or are otherwise damaged.
Definition: Deamination
The process by which amino acids are broken down. The amino group is removed from the amino acid and converted to ammonia. The rest of the amino acid is made up of mostly carbon and hydrogen, and is recycled or oxidized for energy.
Definition: Default Mode Network
The default mode network is most commonly shown to be active when a person is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at wakeful rest, such as during daydreaming and mind-wandering. Functions include autobiographical information, self-reference, emotions of one's self and others, theory of mind, moral reasoning, social evaluations, social categories, remembering past, imagining future, and story comprehension.
Definition: Dendritic spines
A small membranous protrusion from a neuron's dendrite that typically receives input from a single synapse of an axon.
Definition: Dentate Gyrus
Part of the hippocampus that is thought to contribute to the formation of new episodic memories, the spontaneous exploration of novel environments, and other functions. The physiological effects of stress has been shown to inhibit the process of neurogenesis implying that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus may play an important role in modulating symptoms of stress and depression.
Definition: Deoxycholic Acid
A secondary bile acid that is produced in order to aid in the digestion of fats and oils. It causes DNA damage and can cause tumorigenesis, particularly in the colon.
Definition: Dichloroacetate (DCA)
A drug that inhibits the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, thus increasing oxidative phosphorylation. Preliminary studies have shown
DCA can slow the growth of certain tumors in animal and in vitro studies.
Definition: Differential Stress Resistance
Normal cells being more resilient to stress because they can increase genetic pathways to help protect against stress whereas cancer cells are unable to do this as a consequence of oncogenic signaling. Differential stress sensitization refers to the fact that cancer cells are more sensitive to cell death as a consequence to stress.
Definition: Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
DMT is a powerful psychedelic compound of the tryptamine family. It is a structural analog of serotonin and a functional analog of other psilocybin. Historically, it has been consumed by indigenous Amazonian Indian cultures in the form of ayahuasca for divinatory and healing purposes.
DMT is known for its relatively short duration of action, intense effects and rapid onset.
Definition: Dissociative anesthesia
Dissociatives are a class of hallucinogen, which distort perceptions of sight and sound and produce feelings of detachment - dissociation - from the environment and self. This is done through reducing or blocking signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain. Although many kinds of drugs are capable of such action, dissociatives are unique in that they do so in such a way that they produce hallucinogenic effects, which may include sensory deprivation, dissociation, hallucinations, and dream-like states or trances.
Definition: Diurnal
Animals characterized by higher activity during the day and sleeping more at night.
Definition: DNA damage
A major contributing factor to aging, cellular senescence, and the development of cancer. Byproducts of the energy production activities of our mitochondria and also byproducts from immune activity are both major sources of damage. Additionally, environmental stressors can increase this base level of damage. Damage can be mitigated by repair processes, however, the effectiveness of these processes may also be influenced by the availability of dietary minerals, such as magnesium, among other things, which are needed for proper function of repair enzymes.
Definition: DNA microarray
A technique that enables scientists to measure the expression levels of thousands of genes simultaneously in order to study the effects of certain treatments, diseases, and developmental stages on gene expression. Also used for genotyping and sometimes referred to as a "DNA chip" or a "biochip."
Definition: Docosahexaenoic acid
An omega-3 fatty acid with 22 carbon atoms that is a primary structural component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, skin, sperm, testicles and retina. Most of the DHA in fish and multicellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic microalgae.
Definition: Drosophila
A genus of flies, often called "fruit flies", that have been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. They are a popular experimental animal because they are easily cultured en masse out of the wild, have a short generation time, and mutants are readily obtainable.
Definition: Dynorphin
Dynorphin is an extremely potent endogenous opioid peptide that acts on the kappa-opioid receptor and is associated with a transient feeling of dysphoria. Dynorphin has many different physiological actions, depending upon its site of production. It is involved in addiction, temperature regulation, appetite, circadian rhythm, pain, stress and depression. This opioid may also be involved in the body’s thermoregulatory response to hyperthermia1.
Definition: Dysbiosis
An unhealthy change in the normal bacterial ecology of a part of body, e.g., the intestines or the oral cavity.
Definition: Eczema
A medical condition in which patches of skin become rough and inflamed, with blisters that cause itching and bleeding, sometimes resulting from a reaction to irritation (eczematous dermatitis) but more typically having no obvious external cause.
Definition: Electroencephalography
(EEC)
Electrophysiological monitoring method records electrical activity of the brain. It is typically noninvasive, with the electrodes placed along the scalp, although invasive electrodes are sometimes used in specific applications. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain.
Definition: Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.
Definition: Emergence
Emergence is a phenomenon whereby larger entities arise through interactions among smaller or simpler entities such that the larger entities exhibit properties the smaller/simpler entities do not exhibit. Emergence is central in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry and psychological phenomena emerge from the neurobiological phenomena of living things.
Definition: Endocrine system
System of glands regulating the body through the production of hormones. The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks. In contrast, the nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived.
Definition: Endoplasmic Reticulum
A type of organelle in the cells of eukaryotic organisms that forms as interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is the site of protein synthesis, whereas smooth ER functions in lipid manufacture and metabolism.
Definition: Endotoxemia
Presence in the blood of endotoxin, which, if derived from gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria may cause shock.
Definition: Endotoxin
Also referred to as lipopolysaccharide. Large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide with an O-antigen outer core. These molecules are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and elicit strong immune responses in animals.
Definition: Enzyme
Any of a group of complex proteins or conjugated proteins that are produced by living cells and act as catalyst in specific biochemical reactions.
Definition: Epigenetics
The study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.
Definition: Epithelial-mesenchymal
transition
The transdifferentiation of epithelial cells into motile mesenchymal cells, a process known as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), is integral in development, wound healing and stem cell behaviour, and contributes pathologically to fibrosis and cancer progression.
Definition: Erythropoietin
A hormone secreted by the kidneys that increases the rate of production of red blood cells in response to falling levels of oxygen in the tissues.
EPO is also involved in the wound healing process, and plays a role in the brain's response to neuronal injury as well.
Definition: Essential Amino Acids
Amino acids that cannot be synthesized from scratch by the organism, but must be supplied via diet. The nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.
Definition: Essential Tremor
The most common movement disorder involving a tremor of the arms, hangs or fingers particularly during voluntary movement such as eating or writing.
Definition: Eustress
Beneficial stress-either psychological, physical (e.g. exercise) or biochemical (hormesis).
Definition: Evolutionarily conserved
A gene that has remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution. Conservation of a gene indicates that it is unique and essential and that changes in the gene are likely to be lethal or at least highly maladaptive.
Definition: Exvivo
Taking place outside an organism. Exvivo conditions allow experimentation of an organisms cells or tissue under more controlled conditions than is possible in in vivo experiments (in the intact organism).
Definition: Farnesylation
Process in which proteins add an isoprenoid lipid called a farnesyl group to the -SH of the cysteine near the end of target proteins to form a thioether linkage. This process causes farnesylated proteins to become membrane-associated due to the hydrophobic nature of the farnesyl group.
Definition: Fasting-mimicking Diet (FMD)
A diet that mimics the effects of fasting on markers associated with the stress resistance induced by prolonged fasting, including low levels of glucose and IGF-1, and high levels of ketone bodies and IGFBP-1.
Definition: Fat Oxidation
Process in which fatty acids are catabolized in the presence of oxygen in the mitochondria to produce energy.
Definition: Fatty Acid
A molecule composed of carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Fatty acids are an important component of cell membranes and are key sources of fuel because, when metabolized, they yield large quantities of ATP. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose.
Definition: Fecal Transplant
Transfer of fecal material contain bacteria and natural antibacterials from a healthy individual into a diseased recipient.
Definition: Fecundity
Fecundity is similar to fertility. Representative of an organism's potential to create offspring.
Definition: Flavonoid
Flavonoid are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions. Flavonoids have been shown to have a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities in animal, human, and in-vitro studies. Examples include anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, and anti-diarrheal activities.
Definition: Foam cells
Fat-laden macrophages seen in atherosclerosis that are formed when the body sends macrophages to the location of a fatty deposit on the blood vessel walls.
Definition: Folate
Also known as Vitamin B9. Folate serves as a precursor to the DNA nucleotide thymine. FOIate deficiency, consequently, has been associated with uracil substitutions, which can cause strand breaks in DNA. Folate is also used to create methyl groups, which are used in genetic regulation (epigenetics), as well as used to convert homocysteine into methionine. ~8% of people in the United States are deficient in folate.
Definition: F0X03
A gene for which increases in activity have been associated with longevity. F0X03 is a master regulator of many genes involved in dealing with stress, including DNA repair genes, protein misfolding genes, antioxidant genes, anti-inflammatory genes, etc. Humans with a more active version of this gene have a 2.7-fold increased chance of living to be a centenarian.
Definition: Free radical Theory of Aging
Cells accumulate free radical damage overtime. These radicals can be generated from sources such as oxidative respiration in mitochondria or as collateral damage as a consequence of immune responses.
Definition: GABA
y-aminobutyric acid. An amino acid that is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in gray matter.
Definition: Gamma-H2AX
Histone 2A becomes phosphorylated (referred to as gamma-H2AX) when double-strand breaks in DNA occur. This acts as a signal for DNA repair enzymes to be recruited to the site of damage in order to repair it. The gamma-H2AX is also used as a biomarker for DNA damage.
Definition: Gene expression
Refers to how active a gene is. Genes that are highly expressed are active and producing protein and genes that are not expressed are not active.
Definition: Genotype
The genetic constitution of an individual organism. The combination of genotype and environment determine an organism's physical characteristics.
Definition: Gerontology
The scientific study of old age, the process of aging, and the particular problems of old people.
Definition: Ghrelin
The "hunger hormone", also known as lenomorelin, a peptide hormone produced by ghrelinergic cells in the gastrointestinal tract. Studies have shown that ghrelin levels are negatively correlated with weight.
Definition: Gleevec
Imatinib, marketed under the name "Gleevec," is an inhibitor of tyrosine-kinases and is successfully used in the treatment of multiple leukemias including Philadelphia chromosome-positive (Ph+) chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).
Definition: Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM)
A fast-growing, aggressive cancer that develops from star-shaped glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes) within the brain.
Definition: Gluconeogenesis
A metabolic pathway in which the liver produces glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates including glycogenic amino acids (from protein) and glycerol (from lipids).
Definition: Glucose Sparing
When glucose is relieved of its ordinary role in the production of energy, it can, instead be utilized in the pentose-phosphate pathway to produce NADPH. NADPH is a reducing equivalent that is used to produce glutathione, one of the major antioxidants used in the body and brain, as well as fatty acids.
Definition: GLUT3 Transporter
Facilitates the transport of glucose across the cell membrane of skeletal muscles and adipose tissue cells, thereby removing glucose from the bloodstream.
Definition: Glutamate
An amino acid found in high concentration in every part of the body. In the nervous system, glutamate is by a wide margin the most abundant neurotransmitter in humans. It is used by every major excitatory information-transmitting pathway in the vertebrate brain, accounting in total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain.
Definition: Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase
An enzyme that catalyzes the decarboxylation of glutamate into GABA, using vitamin B6 as a cofactor.
Definition: Glutamine
One of the most abundant non-essential amino acids in the human body.
It plays a role in wound healing including at the level of the gut. It can be used as a nitrogen source to build proteins, and a carbon source for macromolecular synthesis, and as a substrate for the citric acid cycle.
Definition: Glutathione
A compound produced inside the cell that functions as an antioxidant and helps prevent damage from oxidative stress caused by the production of reactive oxygen species.
Definition: Glycated Hemoglobin
A form of hemoglobin that is measured primarily to identify the three month average plasma glucose concentration. The test is limited to a three month average because the lifespan of a red blood cell is three months. It is formed in a non-enzymatic glycation pathway by hemoglobin's exposure to plasma glucose. As the average amount of plasma glucose increases, the fraction of glycated hemoglobin increases in a predictable way. Also known as HbA1c or HBA1C.
Definition: Glycemic Index
A number associated with a particular type of food that is meant to indicate the food's effect on a person's blood glucose level. A value of 100 represents the standard, an equivalent amount of pure glucose. The glycemic index represents the total rise in a person's blood sugar level following consumption of the food; it may or may not represent the rapidity of the rise.
Definition: Glycemic load
Estimates the impact of carbohydrate consumption using the glycemic index while taking into account the amount of carbohydrate that is consumed. In other words, it is a Gl-weighted measure of carbohydrate content that is defined as the grams of available carbohydrate in the food times the food's Gl.
Definition: Glycerol
A sugar-alcohol compound that is the backbone of the triglycerides.
Definition: Glycogen
A polysaccharide, molecularly similar to starch, constituting the principal carbohydrate store material in animals and occurring chiefly in the liver and muscle. Glycogen makes up 5 to 6% of the fresh weight of the liver, and around 1-2% of the muscle mass, the amount of which is affected by things like physical training, basal metabolic rate (BMR), and eating habits.
Definition: Glycolysis
The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate by enzymes, releasing energy. The free energy released in this process is used to form ATP and NADH. This pathway is differentiated from oxidative phosphorylation in its ability to function in the absence of oxygen and without the need for mitochondria.
Definition: Glymphatic system
A functional waste clearance pathway for the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Researchers have demonstrated through experiments with genetically modified mice that the proper function of this system is necessary to remove soluble amyloid-beta from the brain interstitium.
Definition: Glyphosate
A broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate. Introduced by Monsanto in 1974 under the name Roundup, it is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. In March 2015 the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research and
Cancer classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans"
(category 2A). Current glyphosate- resistant crops include soy, maize (corn), canola alfalfa, and cotton.
Definition: Goblet Cells
A glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cell whose function is to secrete gel-forming mucins, the major components of mucus. They are found scattered among the epithelial lining of organs, such as the intestinal and respiratory tracts. They are found inside the trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles in the respiratory tract, small intestines, the large intestine, and conjunctiva in the upper eyelid. Goblet cells are a source of mucus in tears.
Definition: Gram negative Bacteria
Gram negative bacteria contain within their outer membrane lipopolysaccharides (LPS). This substance is known to elicit strong immune responses in animals and is also used experimentally to induce inflammation in the lab. These molecules are also referred to as *endotoxin* and bacteria that have been killed by the immune system in the gut are the major source of endotoxin.
Definition: Growth factor
A naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation, healing, and cellular differentiation. Growth factors typically act as signaling molecules between cells. Examples are cytokines and hormones that bind to specific receptors on the surface of their target cells.
Definition: Gut-brain axis
Refers to the biochemical signaling taking place between the gastrointestinal tract and the nervous system, often involving intestinal microbiota. Several studies have shown that the gut microbiota is involved in the regulation of anxiety, pain, cognition and mood.
Definition: GWAS (Genome Wide Association Study)
An examination of many common genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait. GWAS typically focus on associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and traits like major diseases by comparing the DNA of participants having phenotype for a particular trait or disease to those who don't.
Definition: Harris-Benedict Equation
Individual's basal metabolic rate (BMR) and daily kilocalorie requirements. The estimated BMR values is multiplied by a number that corresponds to the individual's activity level. The resulting number is the recommended daily kilocalorie intake to maintain current body weight.
Definition: Healthspan
The number of years a person is able to live in good health.
Definition: Heart Rate Variability (HRV)
The physiological phenomenon of variation in the time interval between heartbeats. It is measured by the variation in the beat-to-beat interval. Decreased parasympathetic nervous system activity or increased sympathetic activity will result in reduced HRV. Reduced HRV has been shown to be a predictor of mortality after myocardial infarction, and a range of other outcomes/conditions may also be associated.
Definition: Heat Shock Protein (HSP)
A family of proteins that are produced by cells in response to exposure to stressful conditions. They were first described in relation to heat shock but are now known to also be expressed during other stresses including exposure to cold, UV light, and during wound healing or tissue remodeling. Many members of this group perform chaperone function by stabilizing new proteins to ensure correct folding or by helping to refold proteins that were damaged by the cell stress.
Definition: Hematopoiesis
The production of red bloods cells, white blood cells, and platelets from hematopoietic stem cells, which occurs in the bone marrow. Also called hematogenesis, or hematopoiesis.
Definition: Hemochromatosis
Iron overload, also known as hemochromatosis, indicates accumulation of iron in the body from any cause. The most important causes are hereditary haemochromatosis (HHC), a genetic disorder, and transfusional iron overload, which can result from repeated blood transfusions. Affected individuals over the age of 40 or who have high serum ferritin levels are at risk for developing cirrhosis and have a higher risk of hepatocellular carcinoma as well.
Definition: Hemoglobin A1C (Glycated Hemoglobin)
A biomarker for the three month average plasma glucose concentration. It is formed in a non-enzymatic glycation pathway by the hemoglobin's exposure to plasma glucose. As the average amount of plasma glucose increases, the fraction of glycated hemoglobin increases in a predictable way. In diabetes mellitus, higher amounts of glycated hemoglobin, indicating poorer control of blood glucose levels, have been associated with cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy.
Definition: Hepatocyte
A cell of the main parenchymal tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-85% of the liver's mass. These cells are involved in: protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids.
Definition: High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
A procedure to separate substances from a sample based off different chemical properties. A sample is pumped at high pressure through a column of chromatographic packing material using nitrogen or helium gas.
Definition: High-density lipoprotein
High density lipoprotein: a circulating lipoprotein that picks up cholesterol in the arteries and deposits it in the liver for reprocessing or excretion. Colloquially referred to as "the good cholesterol."
Definition: Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a small organ located within the brain's medial temporal lobe and forms an important part of the limbic system, the region that regulates emotions. The hippocampus is associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory through use of long-term potentiation. The organ also plays an important role in learning and spatial navigation.
Definition: Histone
The chief protein components of chromatin found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes acting as spools around which DNA winds, and playing a role in gene regulation.
Definition: Homeotherm
Warm-blooded animal species can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment. In particular, homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes.
Definition: Homology
In the context of biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different species.
Definition: Hormesis
The term forgenerally-favorable biological responses to low exposures to toxins or other stressors such as exercise, heat stress, fasting, and xenohormetics.
Definition: Human milk
oligosaccharides (HMOs)
a family of unique oligosaccharides found in human breast milk that are otherwise indigestible by the infant and thought to have evolved to serve as selective prebiotics for certain commensal bacteria which co-evolved with the unique ability to more efficiently utilize these carbohydrates as a substrate.
Definition: Hydroponic
the process of growing plants in sand, gravel, or liquid, with added nutrients but without soil.
Definition: Hyperbaric Oxygen
In a hyperbaric oxygen therapy chamber, the air pressure is increased to three times higher than normal air pressure. Under these conditions, your lungs can gather more oxygen than would be possible breathing 100% oxygen and normal air pressure.
Definition: Hyperplasia
The enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its cells, often as an initial stage in the development of
cancer.
Definition: Hypochlorite
A type of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that is generated through the activation of white bloods cells, usually in response to a viral or bacterial invader, but also as a consequence of general inflammation. Hypochlorite and other ROS can damage lipids, proteins, and DNA.
Definition: Hypothalamus
A region of the forebrain below the thalamus that coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
Definition: Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a medical emergency that occurs when your body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously low body temperature. Normal body temperature is around 98.6 F (37 C). Hypothermia occurs as your body temperature passes below 95 F (35 C)
Definition: Hypoxia
Condition in which the body ora region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body.
Definition: IGFBP3
Also known as insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3. One of the six IGF binding proteins that have highly conserved structures and bind the insulin-like growth factors IGF-1 and IGF-2 with high affinity, preventing them from binding to the IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R). IGFBP-3 exerts antiproliferative effects in many cell types.
Definition: Immunogenicity
The ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or animal.
Definition: Immunosenescence
The gradual deterioration of the immune system brought on by natural age advancement. It is considered the most important reason for the increased rate of infections (and cancers) in the elderly is believed to be the diminished or exhausted function of the immune system which occurs with ageing.
Definition: In vitro
Experiments that are performed using cells or microorganisms outside of their normal biological context and are often done in a test tube or petri dish.
Definition: Indirect Calorimeter
Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste, or from their consumption of oxygen. This can be combined with other experimental methods to investigate numerous aspects of nutrient assimilation, thermogenesis, the energetics of physical exercise, and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases.
Definition: Ineffable
Too great or extreme to be expressed or described in words.
Definition: Inflammasome
Expressed in myeloid cells and is a component of the innate immune system, promoting the maturation of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1B and IL-18. It is responsible for activation of inflammatory processes.
Definition: Inflammation
Part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective response that involves immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators. Chronic inflammation is characterized by simultaneous destruction and healing of the tissue from the inflammatory process.
Definition: Insulin
Insulin is a peptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets cells and maintains normal blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells, regulating carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism and promoting cell division and growth. Insulin resistance, characteristic of type 2 diabetes, is a condition in which normal insulin levels do not produce a biological response and lead to high blood glucose levels.
Definition: Insulin resistance
A physiological condition in which cells fail to respond to the normal functions of the hormone insulin. The body produces insulin, but the cells in the body become resistant to insulin and are unable to use it as effectively, leading to high blood sugar. Beta cells in the pancreas subsequently increase their production of insulin, further contributing to a high blood insulin level.
Definition: Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)
One of the most potent natural activators of the AKT signaling pathway, stimulator of cell growth and proliferation, potent inhibitor of programmed cell death, primary mediator of the effects of growth hormone, and has been implicated in contributing to aging and enhancing the growth of cancer after it has been initiated. Similar in molecular structure to insulin, IGF-1 plays a role during childhood for growth and continues later in life to have anabolic, as well as neurotrophic effects. Protein intake increases IGF-1 levels in humans, independent of total caloric consumption.
Definition: Interferon
A group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and also tumor cells. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses. Interferons are named for their ability to "interfere" with viral replication, and belong to a larger group of proteins involved in facilitating communication between cells for purposes of immune defense called "cytokines".
Definition: Interleukin 6 (IL-6)
A pro-inflammatory cytokine secreted by T cells and macrophages to stimulate immune response, e.g. during infection and after trauma, especially burns or other tissue damage leading to inflammation. IL-6 also plays a role in fighting infection.
Definition: Intermittent Fasting
A period of fasting between meals that can last several hours to days that increases the production of ketones due to the use of stored fat as an energy source. Intermittent fasting also activates some of the same genetic pathways as caloric restriction.
Definition: Irisin
A protein secreted from muscle in response to exercise that may mediate some beneficial effects of exercise in humans. Role of irisin in generating weight loss and blocking diabetes has been suggested.
Definition: Ischemia
A restriction in blood flow to tissues which causes a shortage of oxygen and glucose needed to keep tissue alive. Ischemia usually occurs when blood vessels become clogged and dysfunctional.
Definition: Isothiocyanate
Isothiocyanates are formed from the breakdown of glucosinolates by the enzymes myrosinase found in cruciferous vegetables. They inhibit phase I biotransformation enzymes, a class of enzymes that are responsible for transforming procarcinogens into their active carcinogenic state. Isothiocyanates also activate phase II detoxification enzymes, which are a class of enzymes that play a protective role against DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species and carcinogens and include enzymes such as glutathione reductase.
Definition: Jabberwocky
A playful imitation of language consisting of invented, meaningless words; nonsense; gibberish. This term was coined by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky, a poem in Through the Looking Glass (1871).
Definition: k-opioid receptor
The kappa-opioid receptor is one of four related receptors that bind opioid-like compounds in the brain and are responsible for mediating the effects of these compounds. These effects include altering pain, consciousness, motor control, and mood, stress and addiction. Agonism of this receptor produces a transient feeling of dysphoria but also causes an upregulation and sensitization of mu opioid receptors, which interact with beta-endorphin.
Definition: Ketamine
Mainly used for starting and maintaining anesthesia. It induces a trance-like state while providing pain relief, sedation, and memory loss. Other uses include for chronic pain and for sedation in intensive care. High doses can cause hallucinations.
Definition: Ketoadaptation
The end results of a physiological process in which your body has biochemically, physiologically, and metabolically shifted from using primarily glucose to using glucose and equal, or in some cases more, fatty acids and ketones for fuel. Being adapted represents an increase in production, utilization and metabolism, general oxidative capacity of cells, as well as actual ability to transport ketones.
Definition: Ketogenic diet
A high-fat, adequate-protein, low-carbohydrate diet. When glucose is not readily available, as in this context of dietary carbohydrate restriction or during fasting, the body produces ketone bodies from the oxidation of fat and uses them to produce energy. This diet has been used medically to treat epilepsy and is being investigated for the treatment of traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease, weight loss, and cancer.
Definition: Ketone bodies
Molecules that are produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake (fasting), carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, or prolonged intense exercise. Examples include acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. These ketone bodies are readily used as energy for a diverse array of cell types, including neurons.
Definition: Lactate
Production from glucose via an oxygen independent metabolic pathway called glycolysis in red blood cells, white blood cells and muscle cells during anaerobic exercise. Lactate is then able to be "shuttled" to other tissues including muscle, heart, and brain where it is used as an energetically favorable substrate for oxygen-dependent energy production.
Definition: Lactate Shuttle Theory
Lactate that is produced from an oxygen independent metabolic pathway (glycolysis) is shuttled to other tissues including muscle, heart, and brain where it is used as energetically favorable substrate for oxygen-dependent energy production.
Definition: Lactic Acidosis
A medical condition characterized by the buildup of lactate in the body and can occur as the result of an underlying acute or chronic medical condition, medication or poisoning.
Definition: Lamin
Fibrous proteins providing structural function and transcriptional regulation in the cell nucleus. Lamins are present in all members of the kingdom Animalia (Metazoa), but are not found in unicellular organisms, plants, or fungi. Lamin proteins are involved in the disassembling and reforming of the nuclear envelope during mitosis, the positioning of nuclear pores, and programmed cell death.
Definition: Lapps
The Sami people. An indigenous Finno-Ugric people inhabiting the Arctic area of Sapmi, which today encompasses parts of far northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Kola Peninsula of Russia, and the border area between south and middle Sweden and Norway.
Definition: Laurie Acid
A medium chain fatty acid that is composed of 12 hydrocarbons that has very potent antiviral activity, particularly against viruses that contain a viral envelope. It also has antibacterial activity and it plays a role in appetite suppression. Coconut oil is a good source of lauric acid.
Definition: LDL Receptor
Cell-surface receptor that mediates the endocytosis of cholesterol-rich
LDL by recognizing apoB, which is embedded in the outer phospholipid layer of LDL particles. The receptor is found in almost all cells, however, cells of the liver is where LDL receptors are especially abundant, because this is where ~70% of LDL recycling occurs. This receptor also recognizes the apoE protein.
Definition: LDL(p)
LDL particle number is thought to be a better predictor of heart attack risk than total LDL cholesterol. Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is used as a marker for LDL (p) since there is one ApoB molecule per LDL particle.
Definition: Leptin
A hormone produced mainly by adipocytes (fat cells) that is involved in the regulation of body fat. Leptin interacts with areas of the brain that control hunger and behavior and signals that the body has had enough to eat. Leptin levels vary exponentially, not linearly, with fat mass.
Definition: Leukotriene
Are a family of eicosanoid inflammatory mediators produced by leukocytes.
Definition: Limbic system
Supports a variety of functions including epinephrine flow, emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it has a great del to do with the formation of memories.
Definition: Lipopolysaccharide
Large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide with an O-antigen outer core. They are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and elicit strong immune responses in animals. Also referred to as endotoxin.
Definition: Lipoprotein
A biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids, bound to the proteins, which allow fats to move through the water inside and outside cells. The proteins serve to emulsify the lipid molecules.
Definition: Long-term meditation
Long-term meditation is a practice where an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness designed to promote relaxation, build internal energy or develop a desired mental state. It can range from 20 minutes to an indefinite amount of time. Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in the brain stem.
Definition: Longevity Compounds
A compound that can increase the lifespan of an organism such as rapamycin and resveratrol.
Definition: Loss of mitochondrial function Theory of Aging
Independent of reactive oxidative species, mitochondria become ineffective and compromise energy supply to the cell and local tissue as humans get older.
Definition: Luciferase
A generic term for the class of oxidative enzymes that produce bioluminescence, and is distinct from a photoprotein. The name is derived from the Latin word lucifer (lightbringer).
Definition: Macronutrients
A class of chemical compounds which humans consume in the largest quantities and provide them with the bulk of energy. Examples include carbohydrates, protein, and fat.
Definition: Macrophage
A type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes, and cancer cells in a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages become known as foam cells after phagocytizing oxidized LDL.
Definition: Macular degeneration
A medical condition which may result in blurred or no vision in the center of the visual field. A combination of genetics and environmental factors that cause oxidative stress such as smoking and obesity play a role.
Definition: Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
A set of cell surface molecules encoded by a large gene family which controls a major part of the immune system in all vertebrates by determining histocompatibility. The main function of the MHC molecules is to bind to peptide fragments derived from pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T-cells.
Definition: Malnutrition
Malnutrition or malnourishment is a condition that results from eating a diet in which nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.
Definition: Master clock
(suprachiasmatic nucleus)
A tiny region located in the hypothalamus responsible for controlling circadian rhythms. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing "slave oscillators," which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.
Definition: Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR),
A protein kinase that regulates cell growth, cell proliferation, cell motility, cell survival, protein synthesis, autophagy, transcription and integrates other pathways including insulin, growth factors (such as IGF-1) and amino acids. mTOR also senses cellular nutrient, oxygen, and energy levels. The mTOR pathway plays a key role in mammalian metabolism and physiology, with important roles in the function of tissues including liver, muscle, white and brown adipose tissue, and the brain, and is dysregulated in human diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, depression, and certain cancers. mTOR has two subunits, mTORCI and mTORC2.
Definition: Mediterranean Diet
A diet pattern thought to confer health benefits found traditionally in Mediterranean countries, characterized especially by a high consumption of vegetables, olive oil, and a moderate consumption of protein.
Definition: Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
A type of triglyceride containing between 6-12 carbon atoms that is metabolized differently than triglycerides containing more than 12 carbons. Examples of MCTs include: caprylic acid (C8), capric acid (C10), and lauric acid (C12).
Definition: Melanopsin
An opsin-like protein, sensitive to light with a peak sensitivity around 480 nm, and found in the very small proportion of retinal ganglion cells which are photosensitive. It is believed to be the visual pigment that synchronizes the circadian cycle to the day-night cycle as well as being involved in the control of pupil size and the release of melatonin.
Definition: Melanosome
An organelle found in animal cells that is the site for synthesis, storage and transport of melanin, the most common light-absorbing pigment found in the animal kingdom. Melanosomes are responsible for color and photoprotection in animal cells and tissues.
Definition: Melatonin
A hormone found in animals (and conserved in plants, fungi, and bacteria) that is critical in regulating our relationship with the light-dark circadian cycle down to a cellular level and also functions as an antioxidant.
Melatonin regulates over 500 genes, and, interestingly, has been shown to be elevated in the blind and may play a part in their decreased cancer risk.
Definition: Messenger RNA
A form of RNA, transcribed from a single strand of DNA, that carries genetic information required for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosomes.
Definition: Metabolic Syndrome
Associated with the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and defined as a clustering of at least three of five of the following medical conditions: abdominal (central) obesity, elevated blood pressure, elevated fasting plasma glucose, high serum triglycerides, and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. Some studies have shown the prevalence in the USA to be an estimated 34% of the adult population.
Definition: Metabolism
The thousands of biochemical processes that run all of the various cellular processes that produce energy. Since energy generation is so fundamental to all other processes, in some cases the word metabolism may refer more broadly to the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell.
Definition: Metastatic Cancer
Cancer that has spread from the part of the body where it started to other parts of the body. When cancer cells break away from a tumor, they can travel to other areas of the body through the bloodstream or the lymph system.
Definition: Metformin
A drug commonly used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes that works by decreasing gluconeogenesis in the liver, reducing the amount of sugar absorbed in the gut, and increasing insulin sensitivity. Some animal research has been published indicating that metformin may lengthen lifespan.
Definition: Methionine
A sulfur-containing amino acid that is a constituent of most proteins. It is an essential nutrient in the diet of vertebrates. Methionine restriction in lower organisms has been shown to extend lifespan.
Definition: Methionine Restriction
There is scientific evidence that restricting methionine consumption can increase lifespans in some animals in certain contexts. This effect can occur even in the absence of caloric restriction, which has also been to increase lifespan.
Definition: Methodological Reductionism
The scientific attempt to provide explanation in terms of ever smaller entities.
Definition: Microbiome
The trillions of microorganisms that live on or in the body. Microbiomes exist all throughout the body including skin, mouth, intestines, gut and hair. There is some evidence that certain population level gut signatures may have a strong correlative and even causative relationship with health status, including obesity.
Definition: Microbiota
The ecological community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms that literally share our body space.
Definition: Micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals that are required by organisms throughout life in small quantities to orchestrate a range of physiological functions. The term micronutrients encompasses vitamins, minerals, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids.
Definition: Mindfulness
The term "mindfulness" is derived from the Pali-term sati which is an essential element of Buddhist practice, including vipassana, satipatthana and anapanasati. It has been popularized in the West by Jon Kabat-zinn with his mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program. Large population-based research studies have indicated that the construct of mindfulness is strongly correlated with well-being and perceived health.
Definition: Mitochondria
Tiny organelles inside of cells that produce energy in the presence of oxygen. Often referred to as the "powerhouse of the cell" because of its role in the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Definition: Mitochondrial Biogenesis
The process by which new mitochondria are made inside of cells. Many factors can activate biogenesis including exercise, cold shock, heat shock, fasting, and ketones. PGC-1 is the transcription factor serving as the master regulator of this process.
Definition: Mitochondrial
Fusion/Fission
The process by which damaged mitochondria are repaired by "fusing" together with normal mitochondria to exchange DNA and proteins and then once again "fissing" apart to give rise to two normal mitochondria.
Definition: Mitophagy
The selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress. Mitophagy is key in keeping the cell healthy. It promotes turnover of mitochondria and prevents accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria which can lead to cellular degeneration.
Definition: Modified Atkins Diet
A change to the traditional "classic" ketogenic diet to make it less restrictive. One of the biggest differences is it doesn't have the same stringent restrictions on protein intake. It has been used to successfully treat drug-resistant epilepsy in adults.
Definition: Molecular Chaperones
Proteins that provide favorable conditions for the correct folding of other proteins. They also repair damaged proteins. Newly made proteins usually must fold from a linear chain of amino acids into a three-dimensional form. Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are a well-known type of chaperone.
Definition: Moringa oleifera
Also known as the drumstick tree or the horseradish tree. It is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree, native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern India.
Definition: mTor Pathway
A genetic pathway that senses amino acid concentrations, and is involved in protein synthesis. mTOR stands for mammalian target of rapamycin, which is a drug discovered in the 1970s that is inhibitory to the pathway and is used as an immunosuppressant in organ donor recipients.
Definition: Mucin
A mucopolysaccharide or glycoprotein that is the chief constituent of mucus secreted by the epithelial cells lining the gut in order to produce a barrier preventing infection by microorganisms inhabiting the gut.
Definition: Mutagen
An agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, that causes genetic mutation.
Definition: N-acetylcysteine (NAC)
An antioxidant that sequesters ROS, is used to make glutathione, and has been shown to break up pulmonary and bronchial mucus.
Definition: NADH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme found in all living cells used to transfer chemical energy from a food source to the electron transport chain. It exists in two forms, an oxidized and reduced form abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH respectively. NAD levels rise during a fasting state and activates the SIRT1 pathway. NADH levels rise during the fed state and serve as reducing equivalents to produce ATP.
Definition: Narcolepsy
A condition characterized by an extreme tendency to fall asleep whenever in relaxing surroundings.
Definition: Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Neuroplasticity allows the neurons (nerve cells) in the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust their activities in response to new situations or to changes in their environment.
Definition: NF-kB
A rapid-acting transcription factor that responds to harmful cellular stimuli, such as reactive oxygen species, IL-1B, bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide or"LPS"), ionizing radiation, and oxidized LDL. Incorrect regulation of NF-kB has been linked to cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, septic shock, viral infection, and improper immune development. Several viruses, including the AIDS virus HIV, have binding sites for NF-kB. In the case of HIV, the presence of NF-kB is believed to be involved in switching the virus from a latent to an active state.
Definition: Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)
A coenzyme found in all living cells and involved in redox reactions and being a substrate of enzymes that add or remove chemical groups from proteins. The effects of the NAD+/NADH ratio are complex, controlling the activity of several key enzymes including many metabolic enzymes.
Definition: Nicotinamide riboside (NR)
A pyridine-nucleoside form of vitamin B3 that functions as a precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide or NAD+. NR has been proposed as a potential anti-aging drug. NAD+ is a coenzyme found in all living cells used to transfer chemical energy from a food source to the electron transport chain.
Definition: Nitrosamine
Chemical compounds of the chemical structure R1N(-R2)-N=0, that is, a nitroso group bonded to an amine. Approximately 90% of nitrosamine compounds studies were deemed to be carcinogenic. Nitrites, often used as chemical preservatives, readily form nitrosamines. Frying foods can enhance the formation of nitrosamines, while ascorbic acid has been shown to inhibit their formation.
Definition: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
Fat is deposited in the liver due to causes other than excessive alcohol use such as diet, genetics, and long-term medication use. NAFLD is related to insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome and may respond to treatments originally developed for other insulin-resistant states.
Definition: Norepinephrine
The hormone and neurotransmitter most responsible for vigilant concentration. Its role as a neurotransmitter has been exploited as a molecular target for a class of drugs known as norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, which were developed for the purpose of treating disorders ranging from ADHD to narcolepsy and depression. Norepinephrine also plays a role in converting white adipose tissue into brown adipose tissue via an uncoupling protein 1 (UCP-1) mediated mechanism.
Definition: Nrf2
A protein that, in mammals, regulates the expression of hundreds of other antioxidant and stress response proteins that protect against oxidative damage triggered by injury and inflammation. One of the most well-known naturally-occurring inducers of Nrf2 is a compound known as sulforaphane.
Definition: Oligodendrocyte
A type of glial cell that is involved in the production of myelin, providing support and insulation to axons in the central nervous system. A single oligodendrocyte can extend its processes to 50 axons, wrapping approximately 1 micrometer of myelin sheath around each axon.
Definition: Oligopotent
The ability of progenitor cells to differentiate into a few cell types. It is a degree of potency that is less than that of multi-, pluri-, or totipotent, but greater than that of unipotent. Examples include lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
Definition: Oligosacharride
A carbohydrate polymer comprised of three to ten simple sugars connected through glycosidic bonds.
Definition: Oncogene
A gene that has the potential to cause cancer. A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that regulates cell growth and proliferation but if it acquires a mutation that keeps it active all the time it can become an oncogene that allows cancer cells to survive when they otherwise would have died.
Definition: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
A test in which a person's glucose and sometimes insulin is tested before and at multiple intervals after having consumed a measurement of glucose. Depending on the protocol, blood may be drawn for up to 6 hours afterward.
Definition: Orthostatic Tremor
A type of movement disorder that causes fast low limb tremors resulting in unsteadiness while standing.
Definition: Oxidant
Highly reactive molecules that have the ability to oxidize other molecules and cause them to lose electrons. Common oxidants are oxygen, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion.
Definition: Oxidative Phosphorylation
The process of generating energy that occurs when mitochondria couple oxygen with electrons that have been derived from different food sources including glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids.
Definition: Oxidative stress
A result of oxidative metabolism, which causes damage to DNA, lipids, proteins, mitochondria, and the cell. Mitochondria cause oxidative stress through the process of oxidative phosphorylation (the generation of energy), and it can also result from the generation of hypochlorite during immune activation.
Definition: P53
This homolog is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it prevents cancer formation, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor. As such, p53 has been described as "the guardian of the genome" because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation. Hence TP53 is classified as a tumor suppressor gene.
Definition: Palate
Surface of one's tongue. Used to describe a person's taste preferences.
Definition: Paleo Diet
A diet based mainly on foods presumed to be available to paleolithic humans. It includes vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, meat, and organ meats while excluding foods such as dairy products, grains, refined sugar, legumes, and other processed foods.
Definition: Pancreatic Islet Cells
A type of cell found in the pancreas that make up 65-80% of the cells in its islets. The primary function of a beta cell is to store and release insulin. These are the cells which are believed to be the cause of type 1 diabetes under circumstances in which the cells themselves are under attack as part of an autoimmune response. In contrast, type 2 diabetics still have functional beta cells, but their body has, instead, become less responsive to the insulin produced.
Definition: Pathogen
In general, anything that can produce disease. Typically the term is used to describe an infectious agent such as a virus, bacterium, prion, a fungus, or another micro-organism.
Definition: Pentose Phosphate Pathway
A biochemical pathway that functions as a parallel to glycolysis, but, importantly, generates NADPH, which is necessary to create the cellular antioxidant glutathione.
Definition: Peyote
Peyote is a small, spineless cactus with psychoactive alkaloids, particularly mescaline. Native North Americans are likely to have used peyote, often for spiritual purposes, for at least 5,500 years.
Definition: PGC-1 (alpha)
A master regulator of mitochondrial Biogenesis. Studies have shown that PGC-1 a in human muscle can be activated by cold stress, such as from cold-water immersion, and that this is associated with an increase in mitochondrial mass.
Definition: Phagocyte
A cell, such as a white blood cell, that engulfs and absorbs waste material, harmful microorganisms, or other foreign bodies in the bloodstream and tissues.
Definition: Phase II Detoxification Enzymes
Enzymes that conjugate xenobiotic metabolites with charged species such as glutathione (GSH), sulfate, glycine, or glucuronic acid. Products of conjugation reactions have increased molecular weight and tend to be less active than their substrates and easier to transport out of the cell. These enzymes include Glutathione Synthesis (Gclc, Gclm), Ros Elimination (Txnrdl, Prdxl), Detoxification (Gst, Nqo1), Drug Excretion (Mrp), and NADPH Synthesis (G6PD, ME1)
Definition: Pluri potent
Capable of developing into any type of cell or tissue except those that form a placenta or embryo.
Definition: Poikilotherm
It is the opposite of a homeotherm. Organisms who do not use metabolism to maintain a certain body temperature. Often they can have variance in body temperature depending on the ambient temperature.
Definition: Polyphenol
Any of various alcohols containing two or more benzene rings that each have at least one hydroxyl group (OH) attached. Many polyphenols occur naturally in plants and some kinds, such as the flavonoids and tannins, are believed to be beneficial to health.
Definition: Polyunsaturated Fats (PUFAs)
Include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Found in fish, nuts, and seeds. These fats are more prone to oxidation than other fatty acids. Additionally, PUFAs activate a master gene called PPAR which is involved in lipid metabolism.
Definition: Portal venous system
in the circulatory system of animals, a portal venous system occurs when a capillary bed pools into another capillary bed through veins, without first going through the heart. Both capillary beds and the blood vessels that connect them are considered part of the portal venous system. When unqualified as just “portal venous system," this often refers to the hepatic portal system. For this reason, "portal vein" most commonly refers to the hepatic portal vein.
Definition: Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
A type of imaging test that uses a radioactive substance (tracer) to look for disease in the body. For cancer detection/metastasis the tracer used is fluorodeoxyglucose, an analogue of glucose. The concentrations of tracer imaged indicate tissue metabolic activity as it corresponds to regional glucose uptake.
Definition: Posterior Cingulate
The posterior cingulate cortex is highly connected and one of the most metabolically active regions in the brain, but there is no consensus as to its cognitive role. It likely integrates and mediates information in the brain and has been found to be activated during self-related thinking and deactivated during meditation. Disorders concerning the posterior cingulate include depression, Alzheimer's, autism, ADHD, TBI, and schizophrenia.
Definition: Postprandial
Of or relating to the period immediately after a meal.
Definition: Prefrontal Cortex
This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior, differentiating among conflicting thoughts, determining good and bad, better and best, same and different, future consequences of current activities, social control, and working toward a defined goal.
Definition: Premalignant cancer
A state of disordered morphology of cells that is associated with an increased risk of cancer. If left untreated, these conditions may lead to cancer. Sometimes it is referred to as precancerous.
Definition: Prion
An infectious agent thought to be the cause of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Prions were initially identified as the causative agent in animal TSEs such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)- - known popularly as "mad cow disease"- - and scrapie in sheep. Human prion diseases include Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Syndrome, Fatal Familial Insomnia, and kuru.
Definition: Progeria
Progeria is an extremely rare genetic disorder in which symptoms resembling aspects of aging are manifested at a very early age. Those born with progeria typically live to their mid teens to early twenties. Although the term progeria applies strictly speaking to all diseases characterized by premature aging symptoms, it is often applied specifically in reference to Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS).
Definition: Progerin
A truncated version of lamin A protein. In the case of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria, this truncated form of the protein is most often generated by a silent point mutation (C1824T) in the gene.
Definition: Prospective cohort study
A prospective cohort study is a type of study, e.g., in sociology or medicine, that follows participants for a particular future time period.
Definition: Prostaglandin
A group of lipid signaling molecules that have diverse hormone-like effects and also play a role in inflammation, vasoconstriction or vasodilation, aggregation or disaggregation of platelets, calcium movement, cell growth, and thermoregulation. Prostaglandins are produced in many places throughout the human body.
Definition: Protease
Any enzyme that breaks down a protein into smaller subunits. Proteases can be found in Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Bacteria, Archaea or viruses.
Definition: Proteasome
Protein complexes inside cells that degrade misfolded, damaged or unneeded proteins via proteolysis, which is a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds.
Definition: Protein Conformation
The 3-dimensional structure of a protein. The structure of a protein is determined by its amino acid constituents, the interaction of its amino acids with each other, and the interaction of its amino acid constituents with the environment surrounding the protein. The conformation then determines how the protein functions and how long its half-life is.
Definition: Protein kinase A (PKA)
A family of enzymes whose activity is dependent on cellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP). Protein kinase A has several functions in the cell, including regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism.
Definition: Proteostasis
A portmanteau of the words protein and homeostasis. Proteostasis is maintained through the competing and integrated biological pathways within cells that control the biogenesis, folding, trafficking and degradation of proteins present within and outside the cell.
Definition: Psilocybin
A naturally occurring psychedelic compound produced by more than 200 species of mushrooms. As a prodrug, psilocybin is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects including euphoria, visual and mental hallucinations, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and spiritual experiences, and can include possible adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks.
Definition: Psychomotor vigilance task
A sustained-attention, reaction-time task that measures the speed with which subjects respond to a visual stimulus. Research indicates increased sleep debt or sleep deficit correlates with deteriorated alertness, slower problem-solving, and declined psycho-motor skills.
Definition: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
One of the enzymes involved in the process of converting pyruvate, which is derived from glucose, into energy in the form of ATP inside of the mitochondria.
Definition: Quiescent
In a state or period of inactivity or dormancy.
Definition: Randomized Controlled Trials
A study in which people are allocated at random (by chance alone) to receive one of several clinical interventions. One of these interventions is the standard of comparison or control. The control may be a standard practice, a placebo ("sugar pill"), or no intervention at all.
Definition: Rapamycin
The compound was initially developed as an antifungal agent. However, this use was abandoned when it was discovered to have potent immunosuppressive and antiproliferative properties due to its ability to inhibit one of the complexes of mTOR. Rapamycin has since shown interesting lifespan extension in animals.
Definition: RAS Pathway
A genetic pathway that activates genes involved in cell growth and survival. Mutations in RAS lead to cancer: 20 to 25% of all human tumors
have a mutation in RAS.
Definition: RBM3
A gene that encodes for a protein known as "putative RNA-binding protein 3." Expression of this gene is induced by cold shock and low oxygen tension.
Definition: Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS)
Reactive Nitrogen Species are similarly damaging but a product of immune cell activation.
Definition: Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen, which are generated by oxidative phosphorylation, as well as immune activation and can damage cells (including lipids, proteins, mitochondria and DNA).
Definition: Recommended daily allowance (RDA)
The amount of daily nutrient intake judged by Food and Nutrition Board Research Council to be adequate for the maintenance of good nutrition in an average adult.
Definition: Refined Carbohydrate
Refined carbohydrates are forms of sugars and starches that don't exist in nature. They do come from natural whole foods, but they have been altered in some way by processing to "refine" them. Processing methods include industrial extraction, concentration/purification, and enzymatic transformation which removes many essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
Definition: Regulatory T Cells
Also known as T regulatory cells orTregs. A component of the immune system that suppress immune responses of other cells. This is an important "self-check" build into the immune system to prevent excessive reactions. Regulatory T cells come in many forms with the most well-understood being those that express CD4, CD25, and Foxp3 (CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells).
Definition: Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which oxygen is utilized to generate energy inside of the mitochondria.
Definition: Respiratory alkalosis
Increased respiration elevates the blood pH beyond the normal range (7.35-7.45) with a concurrent reduction in arterial levels of carbon dioxide. This condition is one of the four basic categories of disruption of acid-base homeostasis.
Definition: Resveratrol
Resveratrol is produced naturally by several plants in response to injury or when the plant is under attack by pathogens such as bacteria or fungi.
Food sources of resveratrol include the skin of grapes, blueberries, raspberries, and mulberries.
Definition: Retinal ganglion cell (RGC)
A type of neuron located in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. Ganglion cells receive visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells. A small percentage of ganglion cells contribute little or nothing to vision, but, instead, contain melanopsin and contribute to circadian rhythm and pupillary light reflex (the resizing of the pupil).
Definition: Retinal ganglion cells
A type of neuron located near the inner surface (the ganglion cell layer) of the retina of the eye. A small percentage of RGCs contribute little or nothing to vision, but are themselves photosensitive; their axons form the retinohypothalamic tract and contribute to circadian rhythms.
Definition: Reverse Cholesterol transport
A main-step process resuming in the net movement of cholesterol from peripheral tissues back to the liver via the plasma. Excess cholesterol from cells is brought back to the liver by HDL where it is secreted in bile or otherwise converted into bile salts.
Definition: Rhodopsin
A pigment found in the rods of the retina that is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Rhodopsin is extremely sensitive to light, and thus enables vision in low-light conditions. When rhodopsin is exposed to light, it immediately photobleaches, but is regenerated fully in about 45 minutes. Unlike melanopsin, rhodopsin is used in the formation of visual images and is also more sensitive to light.
Definition: Ritalin (Methylphenidate)
Methylphenidate is a commonly prescribed psychostimulant and works by increasing the activity of the central nervous system. It produces such effects as increasing or maintaining alertness, combating fatigue, and improving attention. Methylphenidate may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder.
Definition: RQ
Respiratory quotient. RQ=C02 eliminated/02 consumed. Used in calculations of basal metabolic rate (BMR) when estimated from carbon dioxide production. Such measurements, like measurements of oxygen uptake, are forms of indirect calorimetry. It is measured using a respirometer.
Definition: Saccharomyces
cerevisiae
Otherwise known as Brewer’s or Baker’s yeast, is believed to have been initially isolated from the skin of grapes. S. cerevisiae is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast, especially proteins involved in cell cycle, signaling, and protein-processing. In the field of aging, this organism has been responsible for discovery of mammalian genes affecting aging more than any other model organism and continues to be used extensively for the study of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.
Definition: Salience
The state or quality by which something stands out relative to its neighbors. Saliency detection is considered to be a key attentional mechanism that facilitates learning and survival by enabling organisms to focus their limited perceptual and cognitive resources on the most pertinent subset of the available sensory data.
Definition: Salvinorin A
Salvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans. Salvinorin A can produce psychoactive experiences in humans with a typical duration of action being several minutes to an hour or so. It is structurally distinct from other naturally occurring hallucinogens, acting on the k-opioid receptor instead of the 5-HT2A (serotonin) receptor.
Definition: Sarcopenia
Loss of muscle tissue as a natural part of the aging process.
Definition: Savanna
A plain characterized by coarse grasses and scattered tree growth, especially on the margins of the tropics where the rainfall is seasonal, as in eastern Africa.
Definition: Schedule 1 drugs
Under the Controlled Substances Act schedule 1 drugs are the most controlled drugs under federal regulation. Schedule 1 drugs are classified as having a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.
Definition: Schizophrenia
A mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand what is real. Common symptoms include false beliefs, unclear or confused thinking, hearing voices that others do not, reduced social engagement and emotional expression, and a lack of motivation. People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety disorders, major depressive illness, or substance use disorders.
Definition: Scurvy
A disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. Humans and certain other animals require vitamin C from the diet in order to synthesize collagen. Scurvy can cause spongy gums, bleeding from the mucous membranes, and eventually loss of teeth and open suppurating wounds from impaired wound healing.
Definition: Selective Pressure
Environmental factors which may reduce reproductive success in a population and thus contribute to evolutionary change or extinction through the process of natural selection.
Definition: Senescent
The condition or process of deterioration that occurs with age. Cells that acquired enough damage can become senescent which means they are not metabolically active and do not serve a function. Moreover, they can release inflammatory cytokines which can then lead to the damage of neighboring healthy cells.
Definition: Senolytic
Refers to small molecules that can selectively induce death of senescent cells. From the words "senescence" and "lytic" - destroying.
Definition: Sepsis
The body's overwhelming and life-threatening response to an infection which can lead to tissue damage, organ failure, and death.
Definition: Serotonin
AKA 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract (Gl tract), blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of animals, including humans. It is popularly thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness.
Definition: Set and Setting
Set and setting describes the context for psychoactive and particularly psychedelic drug experiences. "Set" is the mental state a person brings to the experience, like thoughts, mood and expectations. "Setting" is the physical and social environment.
Definition: Sex-Hormone Binding Globulin (SHBG)
A glycoprotein that binds to sex hormones, and is produced mostly by the liver. Testosterone and estradiol circulate in the bloodstream bound mostly to SHBG. Only around 1-2% is unbound or "free", and thus biological active. The relative binding affinity of various sex steroids for SHBG is dihydrotestosterone (DHT) > testosterone: androstenediol> estradiol> estrone.
Definition: Short-Chain Fatty Acids
Also referred to as volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and possess an aliphatic tail of less than six carbon atoms. Produced when dietary fiber is fermented in the colon, and primarily absorbed through the portal vein during lipid digestion. The SCFA butyrate is particularly important for colon health because it is the primary energy source for colonic cells and has anti-carcinogenic as well as anti-inflammatory properties.
Definition: Signaling Molecule
A molecule that allows cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment, which enables normal cellular function, tissue repair, immunity, cognition, and more. Hormones and neurotransmitters are examples of signaling molecules. There are many types of signaling molecules, however, including thinkgs like: cAMP, nitric oxide, estrogen, norepinephrine, and even reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Definition: Single Nucleotide Gene Polymorphism (SNP)
A change in one nucleotide DNA sequence in a gene that may or may not alter the function of the gene. SNPs can affect phenotype such as hair and eye color, but they can also affect our disease risk, the way we absorb and metabolize micronutrients, macronutrients, and much more.
Definition: SIRT1
One of the sirtuin protein family members, SIRT1 is an enzyme activated by resveratrol, as well as fasting, and deacetylates proteins that contribute to cellular regulation (reaction to stressors, longevity).
Definition: Small intestinal permeability
Experimental evidence from animal models links gut flora, an increase in intestinal permeability and endotoxemia of intestinal origin to low-grade chronic inflammation and obesity in animals.
Definition: Soporific
Tending to induce drowsiness or sleep.
Definition: SSRI (Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor)
They are the most commonly prescribed antidepressants. SSRIs block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin in the brain, making more serotonin active. FDA approved SSRIs include Citalopram (Celexa), Escitalopram (Lexapro), Fluoxetine (Prozac), Paroxetine (Paxil, Pexeva), Sertraline (Zoloft), Vilazodone (Viibryd).
Definition: Starch
A carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder.
Definition: Starvation mode
Fasting results in ketogenesis, promotes potent changes in metabolic pathways and cellular processes such as stress resistance, lipolysis and autophagy. It induces cancer cell death by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through mitochondrial activation.
Definition: Statin
A class of cholesterol lowering drugs that inhibit the enzymes HMG-CoA reductase which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol.
Definition: Stochastic
Randomly determined; having a random probability distribution or pattern that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.
Definition: Subject-expectancy effect
The subject-expectancy effect is a form of reactivity that occurs in scientific experiments or medical treatments when a research subject or patient expects a given result and therefore unconsciously affects the outcome, or reports the expected result. Because this effect can significantly bias the results of experiments (especially on human subjects), double-blind methodology is used to eliminate the effect.
Definition: Subventricularzone (SVZ)
A paired brain structure situated throughout the lateral walls of the lateral ventricles. Along with the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the SVZ is one of two places where neurogenesis has been found to occur in the adult mammalian brain. It harbors the largest population of proliferating cells in the adult brain of rodents, monkeys and humans.
Definition: Suprachiasmatic nucleus
A tiny region located in the hypothalamus responsible for controlling circadian rhythms. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing "slave oscillators," which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.
Definition: Sympathetic nervous system
One of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (the other being the parasympathetic nervous system). Its primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed".
Definition: Tau
A microtubule-bound protein that forms the characteristic neurofibrillary "tau tangles" associated with Alzheimer's disease. This disrupts microtubules form transporting metabolites, lipids, and mitochondria across a neuron to the synapse where neurotransmission occurs.
Definition: Telomere
A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. Telomeres are disposable buffers at the ends of chromosomes which protect genes next to them from being truncated. Over time, due to each cell division, the telomere ends become shorter. They are replenished by the enzyme, telomerase reverse transcriptase.
Definition: Telomere
A compound structure at the end of a chromosome. Believed to function as a protective buffer against DNA loss during DNA replication, as well as DNA damage caused by inflammation, ROS, and other chemical compounds. Telomeres get shorter with age and telomere length is a biological marker for age.
Definition: The hard problem of consciousness
The hard problem of consciousness is the problem of explaining how and why we have phenomenal experiences. It is contrasted with the "easy problems" of explaining the ability to discriminate, integrate information, sense etc. Easy problems are easy because all that is required for their solution is to specify a mechanism that can perform the function consistent with the modern materialistic conception of natural phenomena. The problem of experience is distinct from this set.
Definition: The Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
A series of enzymatic reactions that catalyzes the aerobic metabolism of fuel molecules to carbon dioxide and water, thereby generating energy for the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
Definition: The neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)
NCC constitute the minimal set of neuronal events and mechanisms sufficient for a specific conscious percept. The set should be minimal because, under the assumption that the brain is sufficient to give rise to any given conscious experience, the question is which of its components is necessary to produce it.
Definition: The Warburg effect
The observation that most cancer cells predominantly produce energy by a high rate of glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation in the cytosol, rather than by a comparatively low rate of glycolysis followed by oxidation of pyruvate in mitochondria as in most normal cells.
Definition: Thioflavin T
A dye widely used to visualize and quantify the presence of misfolded protein aggregates called amyloids.
Definition: Time-Restricted Feeding (TRF)
Eating within an 8 to 12-hour time window that begins with when the first food or non-water drink enters your mouth. Dr. Panda's research has demonstrated that TRF has health benefits that may include reductions in fat mass, increases in lean muscle mass, lower inflammation, improved heart function with age, increased mitochondrial volume, ketone body production, improved repair processes, and aerobic endurance improvements.
Definition: Transcription factor
A protein that binds to specific DNA sequences, thereby controlling the rate of transcription of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA.
A defining feature of transcription factors is that they contain one or more DNA-binding domains (DBDs), which attach to specific sequences of DNA adjacent to the genes that they regulate.
Definition: Transgenic
An animal that has had its genome altered through the use of genetic engineering techniques, usually during early embryonic stages. This technique is routinely used to introduce human disease genes or other genes of interest into strains of laboratory mice in order to study the function or pathology involved with that particular gene.
Definition: Triage Theory
Theory proposed by Dr. Bruce Ames which proposes that when the body is deficient in a micronutrient it will allocate its scarce supply to enzymes necessary for short-term survival and reproduction at the cost of long-term survival enzymes. This may result in the acceleration of the aging process.
Definition: Tropomyosin
A large family of integral components of actin filaments that play a critical role in regulating the function of actin filaments in both muscle and nonmuscle cells. The study of tropomyosin has relevance for muscle diseases, autoimmunity, and cancer.
Definition: Type A and Type B personality theory
Type A and Type B personality theory describes two contrasting personality types. In this theory, personalities that are more competitive, outgoing, ambitious, impatient and/or aggressive are labeled Type A, while more relaxed personalities are labeled Type B.
Definition: Type II Diabetes
A long term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. COmmon symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, increased hunger, feeling tired, and sores that do not heal. Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, strokes, diabetic retinopathy which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the limbs which may lead to amputations.
Definition: Ubiquinone (CoQ10)
A fat-soluble compound that is present inside the inner-mitochondrial membrane of cells. It plays a role in aerobic cellular respiration which produces energy in the presence of oxygen. The heart, liver, and kidney have the highest CoQ10 concentrations.
Definition: Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1)
A protein found in the mitochondria of brown adipose tissues (BAT) previously known as thermogenin. Part of the mechanism utilized by brown fat to generate heat via non-shivering thermogenesis, which is especially important for heat loss that would otherwise occur in neonates due to their high surface area-volume ratio.
Definition: Urea
A compound, CO(NH2)2, occurring in urine and other body fluids as a product of protein metabolism.
Definition: Varenicline (Chantix and Champix)
Varenicline is a nicotinic receptor partial agonist—it stimulates nicotine receptors more weakly than nicotine itself does. Varenicline is the most effective medication for tobacco cessation and that smokers were nearly three times more likely to quit on varenicline than with placebo treatment.
Definition: Vascular Dementia
A progressive worsening of memory and other cognitive functions that is thought to be due to chronic reduced blood flow to the brain which is commonly due to the accumulation of cholesterol and other substances in the blood vessel walls that obstruct the flow of blood to the brain.
Definition: Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)
Originally known as vascular permeability factor (VPF). VEGF's normal function is to create new blood vessels during embryonic development, after injury, in muscle following exercise, and new vessels (collateral circulation) to bypass blocked vessels. When VEGF is overexpressed, it can contribute to disease. Solid cancers cannot grow beyond a limited size without an adequate blood supply, and cancers that can express VEGF are able to grow and metastasize.
Definition: Vasopressin
A pituitary hormone that acts to promote the retention of water by the kidneys and increase blood pressure.
Definition: Very-Low-Density LDL (VLDL)
Enables fats and cholesterol to move within the water-based solution of the bloodstream. VLDL is assembled in the liver from triglycerides, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, and converted in the bloodstream to low-density lipoprotein (LDL), VLDL transports endogenous products, whereas chylomicrons transport exogenous (dietary) products.
Definition: Vipassana meditation
A Buddhist practice of meditation which literally means insight into the true nature of reality. Vipassana-meditation uses mindfulness of breathing, combined with the contemplation of impermanence, to gain insight into the true nature of this reality. All phenomena are investigated, and concluded to be painful and unsubstantial, without an immortal entity or self-view, and in its ever-changing and impermanent nature.
Definition: V02 Max
The maximum rate of oxygen consumption as measured during incremental exercise and indicates the aerobic fitness of an individual, and plays a role in endurance capacity during prolonged, submaximal exercise.
Definition: VOC
Volatile organic compound. An organic chemical that has a high vapor pressure at ordinary room temperature.
Definition: Warburg Effect
The observation that most cancer cells predominantly produce energy by a high rate of glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation in the cytosol, rather than by a comparatively low rate of glycolysis followed by oxidation of pyruvate in mitochondria as in most normal cells.
Definition: Western Blot
Sometimes called the protein immunoblot. Used to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native proteins by 3-D structure or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide. The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are stained with antibodies specific to the target protein.
Definition: Xenohormesis
Molecules such as plant polyphenols, which are produced in response to stress experienced by the plants, can have a longevity-conferring effect in consumers of the plant. Compounds like polyphenols themselves similarly are beneficial, in part, because they trigger mild cellular stress that induces beneficial stress response pathways.
Definition: Zinc finger
A finger like loop of peptides enclosing a bound zinc ion at one end, typically part of a larger protein molecule (in particular one regulating transcription).
Definition: (3-Endorphin
beta-Endorphin is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide used as an analgesic in the body to numb or dull pains. Its effects are mediated by the mu-opioid receptor and has approximately 18 to 33 times the analgesic potency of morphine. beta-Endorphin is also released in response to exercise and is associated with a phenomenon colloquially known in popular culture as a runner's high.